P波とS波: 地震波の伝播
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Learn how P-waves and S-waves travel through Earth, why P-waves arrive first, and how scientists use them to locate earthquakes.
P-Waves: The First Arrivals
When a fault ruptures, the first seismic energy to leave the 震源地震の破壊が実際に始まる地球内部の地点。フォーカスとも呼ばれる。震源の深さは、地表での揺れ方に大きく影響する。 travels as P波(初期微動)岩盤中も液体中も伝わる、秒速5〜8kmの最も速い地震波。P波はスリンキーのように進行方向に対して物質を圧縮・伸長させながら伝わり、地震観測点に最初に到達する。s — primary waves, so named because they arrive first at distant 地震計地震波によって生じる地面の揺れを検知し記録する装置。現代のデジタル地震計は、ナノメートル未満の変位も検出できる。 stations. P-waves are compressional waves: the rock alternately compresses and expands in the same direction as the wave is travelling, like sound waves in air. Because they involve compression and expansion of the rock rather than shearing, P-waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases alike.
This ability to travel through all materials gives P-waves a crucial role in understanding Earth's interior. When P-waves pass through the liquid outer core, they slow dramatically and are refracted; through the solid inner core, they speed up again. By precisely mapping how P-wave travel times deviate from predictions, seismologists have mapped the detailed structure of Earth's layers, a technique called 地震波トモグラフィー医療用CTスキャンに似た手法で、地震波の伝播時間を用いて地球内部構造の3次元イメージを作成する技術。マントルプルームや沈み込むスラブなどの深部構造を明らかにする。.
P-wave speeds in crustal rocks typically range from 5 to 8 kilometres per second, varying with rock type, pressure, and temperature. In the mantle, they reach 8–13 km/s. This speed makes P-waves the first warning of an impending earthquake to arrive at distant monitoring stations — and the foundation of 緊急地震速報(EEW)地震を検知し、強い揺れが到達する前に人々やシステムに警報を送るシステム。数秒から数十秒の猶予を提供し、身を守る行動をとるのに十分な時間となる。 systems.
S-Waves: The Shaking Waves
The second arrival is the S波(主要動)進行方向に対して垂直に岩盤を揺らしながら伝わる地震波で、P波の後に到達する。S波は液体中を伝わることができず、この性質から地球の外核が液体であることが証明された。 — shear wave or secondary wave. S-waves are transverse waves: the rock moves perpendicular to the direction the wave is travelling, like the motion along a shaken rope. This shearing motion is what causes most of the ground shaking people feel during an earthquake, because the back-and-forth or up-and-down movement S-waves produce is far more disorienting and structurally damaging than the push-pull of P-waves.
S-waves travel at roughly 60 percent of P-wave speed — typically 3–5 km/s in the crust. A critically important property: S-waves cannot propagate through liquids, because liquids cannot sustain shear stress. This S-wave shadow zone beyond about 103–143 degrees from an earthquake was the original evidence that the Earth has a liquid outer core. The distinction is still exploited operationally: the absence of S-waves at distant stations is diagnostic of a liquid layer between source and receiver.
Why P-Waves Travel Faster Than S-Waves
The speed difference between P波(初期微動)岩盤中も液体中も伝わる、秒速5〜8kmの最も速い地震波。P波はスリンキーのように進行方向に対して物質を圧縮・伸長させながら伝わり、地震観測点に最初に到達する。s and S波(主要動)進行方向に対して垂直に岩盤を揺らしながら伝わる地震波で、P波の後に到達する。S波は液体中を伝わることができず、この性質から地球の外核が液体であることが証明された。s arises from the physics of wave propagation in elastic media. P-wave velocity depends on both the bulk modulus (resistance to compression) and the shear modulus (resistance to shearing), while S-wave velocity depends only on the shear modulus. Because the bulk modulus contribution is always positive, P-waves are always faster than S-waves in the same material.
This speed difference has a tremendously practical consequence. After an earthquake, the P-wave arrives at a monitoring station first, followed some seconds later by the S-wave. The time gap between the two arrivals — the "S minus P" time, or S-P interval — is directly proportional to the distance from the station to the 震央地下で地震が発生した震源の真上にあたる地表の地点。ニュース報道では地震の発生場所としてよく報じられる。. Measure the S-P interval in seconds, multiply by approximately 8 kilometres, and you have a rough distance estimate. With three or more stations, triangulation precisely locates the earthquake.
How the P-S Time Gap Locates Earthquakes
The elegant method of locating earthquakes using the P波(初期微動)岩盤中も液体中も伝わる、秒速5〜8kmの最も速い地震波。P波はスリンキーのように進行方向に対して物質を圧縮・伸長させながら伝わり、地震観測点に最初に到達する。–S波(主要動)進行方向に対して垂直に岩盤を揺らしながら伝わる地震波で、P波の後に到達する。S波は液体中を伝わることができず、この性質から地球の外核が液体であることが証明された。 time difference is one of the oldest tools in observational seismology. An S-P interval of 10 seconds suggests the 震源地震の破壊が実際に始まる地球内部の地点。フォーカスとも呼ばれる。震源の深さは、地表での揺れ方に大きく影響する。 is roughly 80 kilometres away. An interval of 30 seconds suggests about 240 kilometres. By plotting a circle of appropriate radius around each station and finding where three or more circles intersect, the earthquake location — and with additional information, its depth — can be pinpointed.
Modern earthquake location methods use exactly this principle, but with data from hundreds of stations processed simultaneously by computer algorithms that minimise the mismatch between observed and predicted arrival times. The 世界地震観測網(GSN)世界の地震活動を包括的に監視する、150以上の広帯域地震観測点からなる世界規模のネットワーク。USGS・NSF・IRISが共同で運用している。 and regional 地震観測網地震活動を継続的に監視する、連携した地震観測点の集合。世界地震観測網(GSN)は150以上の観測点から構成され、世界規模の観測範囲を提供する。s provide continuous streams of 地震記象(地震波形記録)地震計が記録した出力で、地面の揺れを時間の関数として示したもの。地震学者はこの記録を解析し、地震の規模・深さ・位置を求める。 data that feed into automated detection and location systems capable of publishing earthquake locations within minutes of the event. The 地震警報システム1991年から運用されている、世界初の公共向け緊急地震速報システムの一つであるメキシコのSASMEX。沿岸部の地震から、メキシコシティに最大60秒の警報時間を提供する。 in Japan uses the P-wave arrival at the closest stations to predict shaking intensity at distant locations before the slower, more damaging S-waves arrive.
What S-Waves Tell Us About Earth's Interior
Beyond locating earthquakes, the behaviour of S波(主要動)進行方向に対して垂直に岩盤を揺らしながら伝わる地震波で、P波の後に到達する。S波は液体中を伝わることができず、この性質から地球の外核が液体であることが証明された。s has been indispensable for mapping Earth's internal structure. The discovery that S-waves cannot pass through a region corresponding to depths of roughly 2,900 to 5,100 kilometres demonstrated the existence of the liquid outer core. The 実体波P波・S波を含む、地球内部を伝わる地震波。表面波より速く伝わり、遠方の地震観測点に最初に到達する信号となる。 velocity profile with depth — how fast P and S waves travel at different depths — traces the density and elastic properties of Earth's layers and can be inverted to produce three-dimensional models of mantle structure.
地震波トモグラフィー医療用CTスキャンに似た手法で、地震波の伝播時間を用いて地球内部構造の3次元イメージを作成する技術。マントルプルームや沈み込むスラブなどの深部構造を明らかにする。 uses small variations in P and S travel times from thousands of earthquakes recorded at thousands of stations to build three-dimensional images of the Earth's interior. Slow-velocity zones at depth often indicate hotter, less rigid material — potentially rising mantle plumes or ホットスポットプレート境界とは無関係に火山活動を引き起こす、高温の岩石がプルームとして上昇するマントル内の場所。ハワイやイエローストーンが代表的な例。 tracks. Fast-velocity zones often correspond to subducted oceanic slabs sinking into the mantle. This imaging has revealed that the mantle is far more heterogeneous than the simple layered models of earlier decades.
Feeling the Waves: What You Experience During a Quake
If you are close to a moderate or large earthquake, the P-wave often arrives as a sudden sharp jolt — a brief bang or bump that makes people think something has struck the building. It may be mistaken for a sonic boom or a truck collision. A second or two later, the S波(主要動)進行方向に対して垂直に岩盤を揺らしながら伝わる地震波で、P波の後に到達する。S波は液体中を伝わることができず、この性質から地球の外核が液体であることが証明された。 arrives with the characteristic rolling, swaying shaking that everyone recognises as an earthquake. This is the motion that can throw people off their feet, topple furniture, and damage structures.
Following the S-wave, 表面波地球内部ではなく地表に沿って伝わる地震波。実体波より速度は遅いが、振幅が大きく継続時間が長いため、被害が大きくなる傾向がある。s — ラブ波地面を水平方向にせん断させる表面波の一種。数学者A.E.H.ラブにちなんで名付けられ、建物の基礎に特に大きな被害を及ぼす。s and レイリー波海の波に似た楕円運動で地面を動かす表面波。レイリー卿にちなんで名付けられ、地震時に感じる「ローリング」のような揺れの原因となることが多い。s that travel along the Earth's surface rather than through its interior — arrive with a slower, more sustained rolling motion. For large distant earthquakes, the surface waves may arrive minutes after the body waves and can produce long-duration, low-frequency shaking that is particularly damaging to tall buildings susceptible to 構造物の共振地震波の周波数が建物の固有振動数と一致したときに生じる、建物の揺れの増幅現象。低層建物は高周波数の波と、高層建物は低周波数の波と共振しやすい。. Recognising these distinct wave types helps explain why earthquake shaking often feels like a quick jolt followed by stronger swaying — you are experiencing first the 実体波P波・S波を含む、地球内部を伝わる地震波。表面波より速く伝わり、遠方の地震観測点に最初に到達する信号となる。s, then the surface waves, in sequence.